The Host Chapter 8: Loved

You're afraid to fly?† The Seeker's voice was full of disbelief edging toward mockery. â€Å"You've traveled through deep space eight times and you're afraid to take a shuttle to Tucson, Arizona?† â€Å"First of all, I'm not afraid. Second, when I traveled through deep space I wasn't exactly aware of where I was, what with being stored in a hibernation chamber. And third, this host gets motion sickness on shuttles.† The Seeker rolled her eyes in disgust. â€Å"So take medication! What would you have done if Healer Fords hadn't relocated to Saint Mary's? Would you be driving to Chicago?† â€Å"No. But since the option of driving is now reasonable, I will take it. It will be nice to see a bit more of this world. The desert can be stunning -â€Å" â€Å"The desert is dead boring.† â€Å"-and I'm not in any hurry. I have many things to think through, and I will appreciate some time alone.† I looked pointedly at her as I emphasized the last word. â€Å"I don't understand the point of visiting your old Healer anyway. There are many competent Healers here.† â€Å"I'm comfortable with Healer Fords. He has experience with this, and I don't trust that I have all the information I need.† I gave her another significant look. â€Å"You don't have time to not hurry, Wanderer. I recognize the signs.† â€Å"Forgive me if I don't consider your information impartial. I know enough of human behavior to recognize the signs of manipulation.† She glowered at me. I was packing my rental car with the few things I planned to take with me. I had enough clothes to go a week between washing, and the basic hygiene necessities. Though I wasn't bringing much, I was leaving even less behind. I'd accumulated very little in the way of personal belongings. After all these months in my small apartment, the walls were still bare, the shelves empty. Perhaps I'd never meant to settle here. The Seeker was planted on the sidewalk next to my open trunk, assailing me with snide questions and comments whenever I was in hearing distance. At least I was secure in the belief that she was far too impatient to follow me on the road. She would take a shuttle to Tucson, just as she was hoping to shame me into doing. It was a huge relief. I imagined her joining me every time I stopped to eat, hovering outside gas station bathrooms, her inexhaustible inquisitions waiting for me whenever my vehicle paused at a light. I shuddered at the thought. If a new body meant freeing myself of the Seeker†¦ well, that was quite an inducement. I had another choice, too. I could abandon this entire world as a failure and move on to a tenth planet. I could work to forget this whole experience. Earth could be just a short blip in my otherwise spotless record. But where would I go? A planet I'd already experienced? The Singing World had been one of my favorites, but to give up sight for blindness? The Planet of the Flowers was lovely†¦ Yet chlorophyll-based life-forms had so little range of emotion. It would feel unbearably slow after the tempo of this human place. A new planet? There was a recent acquisition-here on Earth, they were calling the new hosts Dolphins for lack of a better comparison, though they resembled dragonflies more than marine mammals. A highly developed species, and certainly mobile, but after my long stay with the See Weeds, the thought of another water planet was repugnant to me. No, there was still so much to this planet that I hadn't experienced. Nowhere else in the known universe called to me as strongly as this shady little green yard on this quiet street. Or held the lure of the empty desert sky, which I'd seen only in Melanie's memories. Melanie did not share her opinion on my options. She had been very quiet since my decision to find Fords Deep Waters, my first Healer. I wasn't sure what the detachment meant. Was she trying to seem less dangerous, less of a burden? Was she preparing herself for the invasion of the Seeker? For death? Or was she preparing to fight me? To try to take over? Whatever her plan, she kept herself distant. She was just a faint, watchful presence in the back of my head. I made my last trip inside, searching for anything forgotten. The apartment looked empty. There were only the basic furnishings that had been left by the last tenant. The same plates were still in the cupboards, the pillows on the bed, the lamps on the tables; if I didn't come back, there would be little for the next tenant to clear out. The phone rang as I was stepping out the door, and I turned back to get it, but I was too late. I'd already set the message system to answer on the first ring. I knew what the caller would hear: my vague explanation that I would be out the rest of the semester, and that my classes would be canceled until a replacement could be found. No reason given. I looked at the clock on top of the television. It was barely past eight in the morning. I was sure it must be Curt on the phone, having just received the only slightly more detailed e-mail I'd sent him late last night. I felt guilty about not finishing out my commitment to him, almost like I was already skipping. Perhaps this step, this quitting, was the prelude to my next decision, my greater shame. The thought was uncomfortable. It made me unwilling to listen to whatever the message said, though I wasn't in any real hurry to leave. I looked around the empty apartment one more time. There was no sense of leaving anything behind me, no fondness for these rooms. I had the strange feeling that this world-not just Melanie, but the entire orb of the planet-did not want me, no matter how much I wanted it. I just couldn't seem to get my roots in. I smiled wryly at the thought of roots. This feeling was just superstitious nonsense. I'd never had a host that was capable of superstition. It was an interesting sensation. Like knowing you were being watched without being able to find the watcher. It raised goose bumps on the nape of my neck. I shut the door firmly behind me but did not touch the obsolete locks. No one would disturb this place until I returned or it was given to someone new. Without looking at the Seeker, I climbed into the car. I hadn't done much driving, and neither had Melanie, so this made me a bit nervous. But I was sure I would get used to it soon enough. â€Å"I'll be waiting for you in Tucson,† the Seeker said, leaning in the open passenger-side window as I started the engine. â€Å"I have no doubt of that,† I muttered. I found the controls on the door panel. Trying to hide a smile, I hit the button to raise the glass and watched her jump back. â€Å"Maybe†¦,† she said, raising her voice to almost a shout so that I could hear her over the engine noise and through the closed window, â€Å"maybe I'll try it your way. Maybe I'll see you on the road.† She smiled and shrugged. She was just saying it to upset me. I tried not to let her see that she had. I focused my eyes on the road ahead and pulled carefully away from the curb. It was easy enough to find the freeway and then follow the signs out of San Diego. Soon there were no signs to follow, no wrong turns to take. In eight hours I would be in Tucson. It wasn't long enough. Perhaps I would stay a night in some small town along the way. If I could be sure that the Seeker would be ahead, waiting impatiently, rather than following behind, a stop would be a nice delay. I found myself looking in the rearview mirror often, searching for a sign of pursuit. I was driving slower than anyone else, unwilling to reach my destination, and the other cars passed me without pause. There were no faces I recognized as they moved ahead. I shouldn't have let the Seeker's taunt bother me; she clearly didn't have the temperament to go anywhere slowly. Still†¦ I continued to watch for her. I'd been west to the ocean, north and south up and down the pretty California coastline, but I'd never been east for any distance at all. Civilization fell behind me quickly, and I was soon surrounded by the blank hills and rocks that were the precursors to the empty desert wastelands. It was very relaxing to be away from civilization, and this bothered me. I should not have found the loneliness so welcoming. Souls were sociable. We lived and worked and grew together in harmony. We were all the same: peaceful, friendly, honest. Why should I feel better away from my kind? Was it Melanie who made me this way? I searched for her but found her remote, dreaming in the back of my head. This was the best it had been since she'd started talking again. The miles passed quickly. The dark, rough rocks and the dusty plains covered in scrub flew by with monotonous uniformity. I realized I was driving faster than I'd meant to. There wasn't anything to keep my mind occupied here, so I found it hard to linger. Absently, I wondered why the desert was so much more colorful in Melanie's memories, so much more compelling. I let my mind coast with hers, trying to see what it was that was special about this vacant place. But she wasn't seeing the sparse, dead land surrounding us. She was dreaming of another desert, canyoned and red, a magical place. She didn't try to keep me out. In fact, she seemed almost unaware of my presence. I questioned again what her detachment meant. I sensed no thought of attack. It felt more like a preparation for the end. She was living in a happier place in her memory, as if she were saying goodbye. It was a place she had never allowed me to see before. There was a cabin, an ingenious dwelling tucked into a nook in the red sandstone, perilously close to the flash flood line. An unlikely place, far from any trail or path, built in what seemed a senseless location. A rough place, without any of the conveniences of modern technology. She remembered laughing at the sink one had to pump to pull water up from the ground. â€Å"It beats pipes,† Jared says, the crease between his eyes deepening as his brows pull together. He seems worried by my laugh. Is he afraid I don't like it? â€Å"Nothing to trace, no evidence that we're here.† â€Å"I love it,† I say quickly. â€Å"It's like an old movie. It's perfect.† The smile that never truly leaves his face-he smiles even in his sleep-grows wide. â€Å"They don't tell you the worst parts in the movies. C'mon, I'll show you where the latrine is.† I hear Jamie's laughter echo through the narrow canyon as he runs ahead of us. His black hair bounces with his body. He bounces all the time now, this thin boy with the sun-darkened skin. I hadn't realized how much weight those narrow shoulders were carrying. With Jared, he is positively buoyant. The anxious expression has faded, replaced by grins. We are both more resilient than I gave us credit for. â€Å"Who built this place?† â€Å"My father and older brothers. I helped, or rather hindered, a little. My dad loved to get away from everything. And he didn't care much about convention. He never bothered to find out who the land actually belonged to or file permits or any of that pesky stuff.† Jared laughs, throwing his head back. The sun dances off the blond bits in his hair. â€Å"Officially, this place doesn't exist. Convenient, isn't it?† Without seeming to think about it, he reaches out and takes my hand. My skin burns where it meets his. It feels better than good, but it sets off a strange aching in my chest. He is forever touching me this way, always seeming to need to reassure himself that I am here. Does he realize what it does to me, the simple pressure of his warm palm next to mine? Does his pulse jump in his veins, too? Or is he just happy to not be alone anymore? He swings our arms as we walk beneath a little stand of cottonwood trees, their green so vivid against the red that it plays tricks on my eyes, confusing my focus. He is happy here, happier than in other places. I feel happy, too. The feeling is still unfamiliar. He hasn't kissed me since that first night, when I screamed, finding the scar on his neck. Does he not want to kiss me again? Should I kiss him? What if he doesn't like that? He looks down at me and smiles, the lines around his eyes crinkling into little webs. I wonder if he is as handsome as I think he is, or if it's just that he's the only person left in the whole world besides Jamie and me. No, I don't think that's it. He really is beautiful. â€Å"What are you thinking, Mel?† he asks. â€Å"You seem to be concentrating on something very important.† He laughs. I shrug, and my stomach flutters. â€Å"It's beautiful here.† He looks around us. â€Å"Yes. But then, isn't home always beautiful?† â€Å"Home.† I repeat the word quietly. â€Å"Home.† â€Å"Your home, too, if you want it.† â€Å"I want it.† It seems like every mile I've walked in the past three years has been toward this place. I never want to leave, though I know we'll have to. Food doesn't grow on trees. Not in the desert, at least. He squeezes my hand, and my heart punches against my ribs. It's just like pain, this pleasure. There was a blurring sensation as Melanie skipped ahead, her thoughts dancing through the hot day until hours after the sun had fallen behind the red canyon walls. I went along, almost hypnotized by the endless road stretching ahead of me, the skeletal bushes flying by with mind-numbing sameness. I peek into the one narrow little bedroom. The full-size mattress is only inches away from the rough stone walls on either side. It gives me a deep, rich sense of joy to see Jamie asleep on a real bed, his head on a soft pillow. His lanky arms and legs sprawl out, leaving little room for me where I am meant to sleep. He is so much bigger in reality than the way I see him in my head. Almost ten-soon he won't be a child at all. Except that he will always be a child to me. Jamie breathes evenly, sleeping sound. There is no fear in his dream, for this moment at least. I shut the door quietly and go back to the small couch where Jared waits. â€Å"Thank you,† I whisper, though I know shouting the words wouldn't wake Jamie now. â€Å"I feel bad. This couch is much too short for you. Maybe you should take the bed with Jamie.† Jared chuckles. â€Å"Mel, you're only a few inches shorter than I am. Sleep comfortably, for once. Next time I'm out, I'll steal myself a cot or something.† I don't like this, for lots of reasons. Will he be leaving soon? Will he take us with him when he goes? Does he see this room assignment as a permanent thing? He drops his arm around my shoulders and tucks me against his side. I scoot closer, though the heat of touching him has my heart aching again. â€Å"Why the frown?† he asks. â€Å"When will you†¦ when will we have to leave again?† He shrugs. â€Å"We scavenged enough on our way up that we're set for a few months. I can do a few short raids if you want to stay in one place for a while. I'm sure you're tired of running.† â€Å"Yes, I am,† I agree. I take a deep breath to make me brave. â€Å"But if you go, I go.† He hugs me tighter. â€Å"I'll admit, I prefer it that way. The thought of being separated from you†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He laughs quietly. â€Å"Does it sound crazy to say that I'd rather die? Too melodramatic?† â€Å"No, I know what you mean.† He must feel the same way I do. Would he say these things if he thought of me as just another human, and not as a woman? I realize that this is the first time we've ever been really alone since the night we met-the first time there's been a door to close between a sleeping Jamie and the two of us. So many nights we've stayed awake, talking in whispers, telling all of our stories, the happy stories and the horror stories, always with Jamie's head cradled on my lap. It makes my breath come faster, that simple closed door. â€Å"I don't think you need to find a cot, not yet.† I feel his eyes on me, questioning, but I can't meet them. I'm embarrassed now, too late. The words are out. â€Å"We'll stay here until the food is gone, don't worry. I've slept on worse things than this couch.† â€Å"That's not what I mean,† I say, still looking down. â€Å"You get the bed, Mel. I'm not budging on that.† â€Å"That's not what I mean, either.† It's barely a whisper. â€Å"I meant the couch is plenty big for Jamie. He won't outgrow it for a long time. I could share the bed with†¦ you.† There is a pause. I want to look up, to read the expression on his face, but I'm too mortified. What if he is disgusted? How will I stand it? Will he make me go away? His warm, callused fingers tug my chin up. My heart throbs when our eyes meet. â€Å"Mel, I†¦Ã¢â‚¬  His face, for once, has no smile. I try to look away, but he holds my chin so that my gaze can't escape his. Does he not feel the fire between his body and mine? Is that all me? How can it all be me? It feels like a flat sun trapped between us-pressed like a flower between the pages of a thick book, burning the paper. Does it feel like something else to him? Something bad? After a moment, his head turns; he's the one looking away now, still keeping his grip on my chin. His voice is quiet. â€Å"You don't owe me that, Melanie. You don't owe me anything at all.† It's hard for me to swallow. â€Å"I'm not saying†¦ I didn't mean that I felt obligated. And†¦ you shouldn't, either. Forget I said anything.† â€Å"Not likely, Mel.† He sighs, and I want to disappear. Give up-lose my mind to the invaders if that's what it takes to erase this huge blunder. Trade the future to blot out the last two minutes of the past. Anything. Jared takes a deep breath. He squints at the floor, his eyes and jaw tight. â€Å"Mel, it doesn't have to be like that. Just because we're together, just because we're the last man and woman on Earth†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He struggles for words, something I don't think I've ever seen him do before. â€Å"That doesn't mean you have to do anything you don't want to. I'm not the kind of man who would expect†¦ You don't have to†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He looks so upset, still frowning away, that I find myself speaking, though I know it's a mistake before I start. â€Å"That's not what I mean,† I mutter. â€Å"Have to' is not what I'm talking about, and I don't think you're that kind of man.' No. Of course not. It's just that -â€Å" Just that I love him. I grit my teeth together before I can humiliate myself more. I should bite my tongue off right now before it ruins anything else. â€Å"Just that†¦?† he asks. I try to shake my head, but he's still holding my chin tight between his fingers. â€Å"Mel?† I yank free and shake my head fiercely. He leans closer to me, and his face is different suddenly. There's a new conflict I don't recognize in his expression, and even though I don't understand it completely, it erases the feeling of rejection that's making my eyes sting. â€Å"Will you talk to me? Please?† he murmurs. I can feel his breath on my cheek, and it's a few seconds before I can think at all. His eyes make me forget that I am mortified, that I wanted to never speak again. â€Å"If I got to pick anyone, anyone at all, to be stranded on a deserted planet with, it would be you,† I whisper. The sun between us burns hotter. â€Å"I always want to be with you. And not just†¦ not just to talk to. When you touch me†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I dare to let my fingers brush lightly along the warm skin of his arm, and it feels like the flames are flowing from their tips now. His arm tightens around me. Does he feel the fire? â€Å"I don't want you to stop.† I want to be more exact, but I can't find the words. That's fine. It's bad enough having admitted this much. â€Å"If you don't feel the same way, I understand. Maybe it isn't the same for you. That's okay.† Lies. â€Å"Oh, Mel,† he sighs in my ear, and pulls my face around to meet his. More flames in his lips, fiercer than the others, blistering. I don't know what I'm doing, but it doesn't seem to matter. His hands are in my hair, and my heart is about to combust. I can't breathe. I don't want to breathe. But his lips move to my ear, and he holds my face when I try to find them again. â€Å"It was a miracle-more than a miracle-when I found you, Melanie. Right now, if I was given the choice between having the world back and having you, I wouldn't be able to give you up. Not to save five billion lives.† â€Å"That's wrong.† â€Å"Very wrong but very true.† â€Å"Jared,† I breathe. I try to reach for his lips again. He pulls away, looking like he has something to say. What more can there be? â€Å"But†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"But?† How can there be a but? What could possibly follow all this fire that starts with a but? â€Å"But you're seventeen, Melanie. And I'm twenty-six.† â€Å"What's that got to do with anything?† He doesn't answer. His hands stroke my arms slowly, painting them with fire. â€Å"You've got to be kidding me.† I lean back to search his face. â€Å"You're going to worry about conventions when we're past the end of the world?† He swallows loudly before he speaks. â€Å"Most conventions exist for a reason, Mel. I would feel like a bad person, like I was taking advantage. You're very young.† â€Å"No one's young anymore. Anyone who's survived this long is ancient.† There's a smile pulling up one corner of his mouth. â€Å"Maybe you're right. But this isn't something we need to rush.† â€Å"What is there to wait for?† I demand. He hesitates for a long moment, thinking. â€Å"Well, for one thing, there are some†¦ practical matters to consider.† I wonder if he is just searching for a distraction, trying to stall. That's what it feels like. I raise one eyebrow. I can't believe the turn this conversation has taken. If he really does want me, this is senseless. â€Å"See,† he explains, hesitating. Under the deep golden tan of his skin, it looks like he might be blushing. â€Å"When I was stocking this place, I wasn't much planning for†¦ guests. What I mean is†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The rest comes out in a rush. â€Å"Birth control was pretty much the last thing on my mind.† I feel my forehead crease. â€Å"Oh.† The smile is gone from his face, and for one short second there is a flash of anger I've never seen there before. It makes him look dangerous in a way I hadn't imagined he could. â€Å"This isn't the kind of world I'd want to bring a child into.† The words sink in, and I cringe at the thought of a tiny, innocent baby opening his eyes to this place. It's bad enough to watch Jamie's eyes, to know what this life will bring him, even in the best possible circumstances. Jared is suddenly Jared again. The skin around his eyes crinkles. â€Å"Besides, we've got plenty of time to†¦ think about this.† Stalling again, I suspect. â€Å"Do you realize how very, very little time we've been together so far? It's been just four weeks since we found each other.† This floors me. â€Å"That can't be.† â€Å"Twenty-nine days. I'm counting.† I think back. It's not possible that it has been only twenty-nine days since Jared changed our lives. It seems like Jamie and I have been with Jared every bit as long as we were alone. Two or three years, maybe. â€Å"We've got time,† Jared says again. An abrupt panic, like a warning premonition, makes it impossible for me to speak for a long moment. He watches the change on my face with worried eyes. â€Å"You don't know that.† The despair that softened when he found me strikes like the lash of a whip. â€Å"You can't know how much time we'll have. You don't know if we should be counting in months or days or hours.† He laughs a warm laugh, touching his lips to the tense place where my eyebrows pull together. â€Å"Don't worry, Mel. Miracles don't work that way. I'll never lose you. I'll never let you get away from me.† She brought me back to the present-to the thin ribbon of the highway winding through the Arizona wasteland, baking under the fierce noon sun-without my choosing to return. I stared at the empty place ahead and felt the empty place inside. Her thought sighed faintly in my head: You never know how much time you'll have. The tears I was crying belonged to both of us.

Criticisms of IMF

â€Å"The fund believes it is fulfilling the tasks assigned to it: promoting global stability, helping developing countries in transition achieve not only stability but also growth. † â€Å"I believe, however, that it has failed in its mission, that the failures are not just accidental but the consequences of how it has understood its mission. † This is what Stiglitz states in his book, and is also his platform on how he feels about the International Monetary Fund. He believes that the IMF has a narrow view stating that â€Å"what the financial community views as good for the global economy is good for the global economy and should be done†.Stiglitz criticizes that the IMF has done great damage to the countries wherein they prescribe economic policies that must be followed in order to qualify for an IMF loan, or for loans from banks and other private-sector lenders that look to the IMF to indicate whether a borrower is creditworthy. Stiglitz argues that the Inter national Monetary Fund and its officials have ignored the ramifications of having incomplete information, inadequate markets, and unworkable situations, all of which are particularly present characteristics of newly developing countries.Stiglitz states that the International Monetary Fund called for policies that conform to logical textbook economics, however, they do not make sense to the country that the policies are going towards to provide relief. â€Å"Stiglitz seeks to show that the consequences of these misguided policies have been disastrous, not just according to abstract statistical measures but in real human suffering, in the countries that have followed the. † (Stiglitz, 2003).The most traditional and perhaps best-known IMF policy recommendation is for a country to cut government spending or raise taxes. Either one of these actions, or both would be used to balance a country’s budget and eliminate the need for government borrowing. Most people believe that a lot of government spending is wasteful anyway. Stiglitz accuses the IMF for reverting to Herbert Hoover's economics in imposing these policies on countries during deep recessions.The deficit, at this time, is mostly the result of a stimulated decline in revenues. Stiglitz argues that cuts in spending or tax hikes only make the downturn worse. He also emphasizes the social cost of cutting back on various kinds of government programs, such as eliminating food subsidies for the poor, which Indonesia did at the IMF's request in 1998, only to be engulfed by food riots. Another standard IMF recommendation is high interest rates, which make deposits and other assets denominated in the currency more attractive to hold.Most countries go to the IMF because they find themselves having trouble maintaining the exchange value of their currencies. Stiglitz argues that the high interest rates imposed on many countries by the IMF have made their economic downward spirals even worse. Countries are intended to battle inflation that was not a serious problem to begin with. â€Å"Stiglitz repeatedly claims that the IMF's policies stem not from economic analysis and observation but from ideology—specifically, an ideological commitment to free markets and a concomitant antipathy to government.† In part, Stiglitz complaint is that the International Monetary Fund did not understand or even try to understand, his and other economists' theoretical work depicting that markets that are pretty much unregulated do not necessarily deliver positive results when information or market structures are incomplete (Stiglitz, 2003). A country that currently has loans from the International Monetary Fund is the country of Venezuela. Venezuela first negotiated an economic program with the International Monetary Fund in the year of 1989. In the mid 1970s, oil prices soared and seemed unstoppable.Venezuela is a country very rich in oil, so at this time, they accumulated a lot of money fr om oil revenues, but also from loans from international banks. The government then used this money to expand state-owned industries, however, the government ended up supporting the least efficient enterprises, which came to rely on government credits and direct subsidies. Government investments were fruitless from 1974 – 1989. As government expenses continued to increase, the gross domestic product grew very little as a ratio of the government expenditures.The excess amount of money supply, created by government spending, raised the price index by a factor of 15, interest rates 3. 7 times and the devaluation of the national currency by a factor of 10, all happening during the same period. In addition to all of this, Venezuela’s foreign debt increased to a record level of $33 billion and their payments could not be honored. Venezuela undertook negotiations with the IMF when they were under all of this pressure from the decreasing oil prices and the rapidly rising intere st rates on their immense foreign debt.They had tried to borrow money to finance some of their debt; however, the international markets had been apprehensive for Venezuela had refused to work with the IMF. Venezuela had first turned to American banks for proposed financing because it did not want to agree with an economic program with the International Monetary Fund. The International Monetary Fund cleared a loan of about $453 million to the country of Venezuela. Officials declared the loan as a first installment of what is expected to be a credit package that may total as much as $4.6 billion from the international agency to support Venezuela’s economic reform program over the next three years. They believe that Venezuela’s economic adjustment program should â€Å"encourage a substantial reflow of private capital† to the South American country. The planned economic reforms were aimed at freeing and unifying Venezuela’s foreign exchange rates, deregulatin g interest rates and opening the country’s economy to foreign trade by removing quotas and tariffs. The austerity program is the price that Venezuela had to pay for the aid in financing from the IMF.Domestic interest rates were allowed to rise substantially and the government had cut several important subsidies as part of a proposed economic program with the IMF. Since Venezuela agreed on an economic program with the IMF, commercial bankers seem a lot more ready to compromise with them. The IMF reform program included many policies. As a result â€Å"The per capita gross domestic product fell almost 8% from 1989 to 1993; the inflation index rose almost 10 fold; the outstanding foreign debt increased by $5 billion and the banking crisis that burst out in 1994 erased 10% of the GNP and $6 billion of the country’s international reserves.† What the Venezuelan government basically did was sign an agreement that led to a transfer of money from private sectors to the à ¢â‚¬Å"pockets of the wasteful government†. The government attempted to balance its accounts through its citizens, by increasing the taxes and increasing the interest rates. Little attention was given to increasing the productive capacity of the nation, but was all focused on the fiscal demands of the state. In recent years, Venezuela's economy has gone from bad to worse. Its deterioration corresponded with the implementation of policies recommended by the International Monetary Fund.Venezuela has gone through two IMF aid packages beginning in 1989. Since the implementation of the most recent package in 1996, Venezuela’s interest rates have more than doubled to 68 percent annually. The national currency, the Bolivar, has been devalued by 94 percent, accumulated inflation has reached 218 percent and production output has stalled. Capital flight has exhausted more than $2 billion from Venezuela’s international reserves, which are much lower now, than they were befor e the International Monetary Fund package was signed.The fiscal deficit has been declared unmanageable and Venezuela’s stock market is down more than 50 percent. This downward spiral was the result of the tax increases, devaluation, few privatizations and public service rate hikes in the 1996 IMF package. The repeated devaluations have increased costs to the private sector and ignited inflation. The IMF also allowed the government to delay reforms of ineffectual state hospitals and public schools. In the case of the country of Venezuela, Stiglitz’s criticisms of the IMF do apply.The IMF’s policies do not take into account the economic and social circumstances that currently exist in the country where it is applied to. As per usual, the International Monetary Fund used its traditional methods on Venezuela. Increase taxes, and have higher interest rates. The positive effects of any loan obtained from the IMF or other financial institutes are useless because of the collection of interest and the rising interest rates. For developing countries such as Venezuela, the benefits from an agreement with the IMF cannot be seen for the large burden of clearing away their large foreign debt blocks their view.The IMF did not take into consideration the social implications that would be caused when such harsh adjustment measures are put into operation. The poor are always the most affected. Their frustration was seen in Venezuela, as outbreaks of violence. The Venezuelan currency kept being devalued constantly therefore workers had to pay more for their essential needs, as their wages began to decline. The unemployment rate would then rise and that is why it is no surprise to why the people of Venezuela turned to violence. When bitterness and despair take hold, sometimes violence may be the only way to be heard.It becomes imperative in times like this to have concrete negotiations on a debt plan to achieve a substantial reduction in debt and in interest payments. While losing many of its systemic functions, the Fund’s operations during the 1980s became dominated by dealing with the debt difficulties faced by a relatively small group of highly indebted developing countries. All the Fund’s lending was to developing countries, and the majority of it was to the highly indebted countries, even though the majority of programmes remained with low-income countries.The Fund frequently became depicted as a development agency offering concessional assistance to developing countries. Even some of its staff bemoaned what they saw as the loss of its monetary characteristics and consequently much of its financial reputation (Finch, 1988). The least subtle criticisms of this type tended to use the phrase ‘development agency’ almost as a term of abuse. What the Fund was doing was perceived as being bad in and of itself. The more subtle criticism was that the Fund had largely been pushed by political pressure into lowering its own financial standards.The criticism here was not so much that development assistance is inappropriate, but rather that the IMF is an inappropriate institution through which to give it. This argument sees it as important to retain the revolving character of Fund resources, as well as the Fund’s short-term monetary perspective—features, so it is claimed, that will be lost if the Fund is forced to lend over the long term on the basis of unviable programmes and unachievable targets. The plea has been strongly articulated to ‘let the IMF be the IMF’ (Finch, 1988).An extension of this argument is that unsuccessful programmes will damage the reputation and credibility of the Fund and adversely affect its catalytic role. The claim that financial standards have been sacrificed is intimately related to the debt crisis. In essence, it is that the governments of countries where the private banks are located, and in particular the United States, encouraged the F und to lend to the highly indebted countries in order to reduce the probability of default. In the early years of the debt crisis, the argument could be made that such action was sustaining the stability of the international banking system.But as the banks themselves adjusted to the crisis by reducing their exposure, strengthening their capital adequacy, provisioning, and expanding other lines of business, this systemic argument for lending by the IMF disappeared. Even critics who approach the issue from a rather different angle, having more in common with the ‘traditional’ criticisms of Fund conditionality, have concluded that the main beneficiaries of Fund lending to highly indebted developing countries during the 1980s were the international banks.Simply put, the claim is that it was positive net transfers from the Fund that financed negative net transfers with the banks. This is a claim that is at least superficially consistent with the evidence at aggregate level, but it is not an interpretation that finds ready acceptance—publicly at least—inside the Fund, where the accusation that it had bailed out the banks has been, often staunchly, rejected. Yet the criticism that the Fund failed in its dealings with the highly indebted countries during the 1980s has more dimensions to it than this.First, there is the argument that, along with others, the Fund misinterpreted the very nature of the debt crisis by treating it either as a liquidity crisis or as one of short-term internal adjustment rather than as a more deep-seated problem of structural adjustment which required important supply-side responses as well as the appropriate management of demand. This meant that the Fund opted to support new financing which assisted countries in meeting their outstanding debt-servicing obligations but which did little to restore medium-term viability to their balance of payments.The nature of the programmes supported by the Fund has, in relation to this, been criticized for an overemphasis on devaluation resulting from a desire to strengthen the tradable sector of the economy and thereby to facilitate debt servicing, and an over-ambitious attempt to achieve stabilization and liberalization simultaneously. A long-standing worry associated with the use of devaluation is that a shift in the nominal exchange rate will fail to alter the real exchange rate because of the inflation it generates.Devaluation is seen as destroying the ‘nominal anchor’, or to use the older jargon ‘reserve discipline’, that a fixed exchange rate provides. Is this not a particular worry in highly indebted countries where the inflation record is frequently very poor and where the reputation of governments as inflation fighters is often weak? Just as the counter-inflationary merits of fixed exchange rates were being acknowledged and accentuated in the context of the European Monetary System, were they not being neglected by the IMF ?Critics of the Fund’s approach to conditionality within the highly indebted countries have argued that, whereas devaluation may certainly be appropriate in some circumstances it may be inappropriate where the fiscal deficit is under control and where the income redistributive effects, particularly in terms of lowering the urban real wage, spark off political unrest and measures to restore real wages. In these circumstances, the price of non-tradeables may also rise, with the result that the relative price effect of devaluation on the internal terms of trade is lost.The dangers of a vicious circle, whereby inflation leads to devaluation which then leads to further inflation, have long been acknowledged in Latin American economies where there is a legacy of rapid inflation and a low degree of money illusion. Indeed, in the context of forward-looking models of economic policy which emphasise the importance of the government’s reputation, the vicious circle can take on an additional twist.Here the use of devaluation damages a government’s anti-inflation credentials; private agents anticipate devaluation and mark up prices ahead of it; the inflation thereby caused itself forces the government to devalue. Expectations become self-fulfilling and generate their own internal dynamics. The Fund has also been seen as being over-ambitious. Its stabilisation and liberalisation objectives have been interpreted as paying inadequate regard to the potential inconsistencies that may exist between them.Within developing countries, in particular, revenue from tariffs may be an important element in total government income. Tariff reduction can therefore exert a significant adverse impact on the fiscal balance unless this source of revenue is replenished by other tax changes. Evidence suggesting a falling rate of success in achieving programme targets is cited as supporting the claim that Fund-supported programmes in highly indebted countries have been unreali stic.In the case of intermediate targets, relating, for example, to aspects of credit creation, such a record reflects an increasing problem of non-compliance. Countries have often simply not complied with strategic elements in Fund-supported programmes. Some authors have again sought to explain this phenomenon in terms of the specifics of the debt problems with which highly indebted countries have been faced, the argument being that Fund-supported programmes have offered little domestic rate of return. The principal beneficiaries have instead been private foreign creditors.The distribution of the costs and benefits of the programmes has established a set of incentives that is antagonistic towards a high degree of compliance. The debt overhang has had the effect of weakening Fund conditionality through acting as a tax on necessary reforms, with one implication being that it has become increasingly difficult to muster the necessary domestic political support for such reforms (Sachs, 1989; Krugman, 1988). In this context it is claimed that debt relief is needed to create the necessary incentive structure to adjust.The Fund has been criticised for failing to recognise this. Indeed, its policy of ‘assured financing’, whereby IMF support was predicated on countries continuing to meet their outstanding obligations to the banks, has been interpreted as systemically discouraging the provision of debt relief by the banks and thereby impeding the resolution of the debt crisis. At the beginning of the crisis the Fund had some success in encouraging new commercial money inflows by making these a precondition of its support, but this insistence faltered as the banks’ reluctance to lend became more pronounced.Moreover, it is argued that the Fund’s inappropriate approach to the debt problem was reflected by its apparent neglect of the distinction between new financing and debt reduction—a distinction which was being accentuated in the academ ic literature as the 1980s progressed (Krugman, 1988). Critics suggested that this neglect again showed the Fund as being primarily concerned with cash flow rather than medium and longer-term problems.Yet, even in a short-run context, the different expectational responses to new money and debt reduction can cause different effects, with new money leading to further indebtedness and therefore the prospects of additional domestic fiscal and monetary problems. Statements emanating from the Fund about its own perception of its role in the debt crisis tended to side-step these analytical issues and stick with broader organizational ones, which emphasized its strategic importance as an ‘honest broker’ or catalyst (Nowzad, 1999).The Fund described its objective as that of normalising creditor-debtor relations and restoring country access to sustainable flows and spontaneous lending. The means to this end were to be vigorous and sustained adjustment efforts by the debtors, and a co-operative concerted approach involving creditors, the Paris Club, commercial banks and the export credit agencies. While recognising that progress had been uneven and vulnerable, by the mid-1980s the Fund was interpreting its overall record on the debt problem as ‘encouraging’ (Nowzad, 1999).At the same time, however, critics were assessing that, ‘the IMF’s recent record in the debtor countries is one of failure’ (Sachs, 1989a). Such disagreement persists because there is no universally accepted set of criteria by which the Fund may be judged. Apart from anything else, there is always the basic problem of the counterfactual: what would have happened if the Fund had done things differently?Accepting this difficulty, a superficial review of the empirical evidence suggests that the Fund’s record in terms of dealing with the debt problem of the 1980s was, at best, mixed. Certainly it managed to help avoid a major systemic international financ ial failure and this was no small achievement. But, by other criteria, no substantial or sustained degree of success can be claimed. By the end of the decade, creditor-debtor relations had not been normalised, and access to spontaneous lending had not been restored.Indeed, the creditworthiness of the highly indebted countries, as represented by the secondary market price of their debt, had continued to fall; net transfers to highly indebted countries were still significantly negative; a concerted and co-operative approach to the debt problem had not emerged; most debt indicators failed to show any notable or sustained improvement; and macroeconomic performance in the highly indebted countries was poor and often deteriorating, with forward-looking indicators such as the investment ratio and import volume suggesting bleak prospects for the 1990s.Even IMF-specific indicators were discouraging, with declining programme compliance, rising arrears and the increasing use of waivers. Episod ic successes existed but the overall picture was not reassuring. During a decade in which open economy macroeconomics became more sophisticated, the accusation was increasingly made that the model underpinning the Fund’s operations had failed to be modified and that it was out of date and inappropriate. Research of an excellent academic standard conducted within the Fund’s own Research Department was, according to this view, no longer having a significant operational impact.Indeed, and again at a superficial level, the empirical evidence seemed to suggest that the conventional caricature of a Fund-supported programme involving a combination of exchange rate devaluation and the deflation of aggregate demand through credit control was more accurate during the 1980s than it had been before (Edwards, 1989). At the same time as Fund-supported programmes were being criticised for lacking intellectual sophistication, evidence as to their adverse social and human implications was also being more systematically collected and coherently presented (Cornia et al., 1997; Demery and Addison, 1997).Increasing infant mortality and morbidity, malnutrition and falling life expectancy were now being attributed, at least in part, to IMF-backed programmes. And the design of programmes which emphasised reduced government expenditure rather than increased tax revenue was being seen not only as endangering important welfare schemes in developing countries, but also as reflecting the dominant current politico-economic paradigm within the developed countries, where the role of the state was under stark review.This in turn highlighted another area—the sequencing of reform—in which the Fund came in for criticism. Merely designing an appropriate programme of policies was now seen as inadequate; more consideration needed to be given to the order and inter-temporal distribution of elements of an adjustment programme, particularly as even research conducted within the Fund itself was beginning to suggest that Fund-supported programmes could have a negative effect on output, at least in the short run (Khan et al., 1996; Vines, 1990).Earlier models, which formed the basis for financial programming within the Fund, most notoriously the Polak model, had basically assumed away such an effect by making output exogenous. Yet even the more outspoken critics of the Fund’s handling of the debt crisis suggest that its approach changed towards the end of the 1980s, particularly after Michel Camdessus took over as Managing Director in 1987.This change of approach found expression in terms of a softening attitude towards debt relief, a change in the treatment of arrears, with the Fund becoming prepared to make loans while countries were in arrears with the banks, and an increasing concern for the effects of Fund-supported programmes on income distribution and the related recognition that income distributive effects might be important in determining the political, and therefore practical, feasibility of programmes.Although criticisms still remained, for example that the Fund placed too much reliance on voluntary forms of debt reduction which, given the associated free rider problems, should instead be treated as a public good, they became slightly more muted. If the Fund was still not coming up with right answers, at least, according to some critics, it seemed to be asking more relevant questions. Moreover, some of the broader criticisms relating to the input of the Research Department were suspended awaiting the impact of the appointment of a new Managing Director.On top of this there appeared to be a growing acceptance that macroeconomic stability was a necessary precondition for sustained economic development, and this took some of the sting out of the old debate about IMF conditionality. At the beginning of the 1990s private capital began to return to some of the lightly indebted countries, to the extent that some commenta tors claimed that the Latin American debt crisis was over. This was not the case in Africa, and it is unclear as to how significant the Fund’s input was in generating capital inflows. References Cornia, G. A. , Jolly, R. and Stewart, F. (eds) (1997)Adjustment with a Human Face: Protecting the Vulnerable and Promoting Growth, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Demery, Lionel and Addison, Tony. 1997. The Alleviation of Poverty Under Structural Adjustment, Washington, DC: World Bank. Edwards, S. 1989. ‘The International Monetary Fund and the Developing Countries: A Critical Evaluation’, Carnegie Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy 31. Finch, David C. 1988. ‘Let the IMF be the IMF’, International Economy, January/February. Krugman, Paul. 1988. ‘Financing versus Forgiving a Debt Overhang’. Journal of Development Economics 29.Khan, Mohsin, Montiel, Peter and Ul Haque, Nadeem (1996) ‘Adjustment with Growth: Relating the Analytical Approaches of the World Bank and the IMF’, World Bank Discussion Paper, Washington, DC: World Bank. Nowzad, B. (1999) ‘The Debt Problem and the IMF’s Perspective’, in Graham Bird (ed. ), Third World Debt: The Search for a Solution, London: Edward Elgar. Sachs, Jeffrey D. 1989a. ‘Strengthening IMF Programmes in Highly Indebted Countries’, in C. Gwin and R. Feinberg (eds).The International Monetary Fund in a Multipolar World: Pulling Together, US-Third World Policy Perspectives No. 13, Washington, DC: Overseas Development Council. Sachs, Jeffrey D. 1989b. ‘Conditionality, Debt Relief, and the Developing Country Debt Crisis’, in Jeffrey D. Sachs (ed. ), Developing Country Debt and Economic Performance, Vol. 1. International Financial System, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Stiglitz, Joseph E. 2003. Globalization and its Discontents. New York: Norton. Vines, David. 1990. ‘Growth Oriented Adjustment Programmes; A Recons ideration’, London: Centre for Economic Policy Research Discussion Paper No. 406, March.

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Exam answer - Essay Example Successful construction procurement should result in timely project delivery, proper budgeting and quality in order to meet the required functions. The act of creating a new structure requires objective survey on site, interaction with design team and other consultants, suppliers as well as other stakeholders. An immediate choice in term of the cost and quality should be agreed upon. The procurement of a construction work is often the subject of joint funding with different stakeholders who have varying interests and goals in the outcome of the projects. The following elements are the best drivers in terms of construction management: Global Bank Corporation are the owners of this project whose purpose is to take account of the demise of many European banks during the credit crunch. The success of this project will meet owner’s interest and at the same time meet the needs of their customers (Schwalbe 2009, p. 45). It is very important to first point at the factors that will determine the most suitable procurement strategy before commencing the projects. These factors: In any construction procurement, the objectives and constraints of each building project are interdependent and therefore require concurrent considerations. A competent and industrious team will be necessary to meet these aspects. Risks are events known or unknown that adversely affect the outcome of the project. The nature of the risk is determined by the objective and constraints of the project. For instance, this project is budgeted at  £120m and any activity that may cost more than the amount projected will be a risk. Consequently, it will affect rest processes and the entire project. Similarly, this project has a tight timeframe for completion. Any delay to the construction program will be a risk on the completion of the project. The responsibility of managing a given risk will be allocated to the party that has the capacity to deal with that risk. Level of project complexity

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How to be an effective team - Research Proposal Example a)For an adult learner, effective team work is crucial for learning and knowledge acquisition process. For this age group, team communication is one of the main elements which help the organization to create high performance teams and achieve further growth and development. In general, a learning team can be defined as a group of individuals working together to solve problems or accomplish tasks. It is the ever-changing collective feelings, hopes, problems and pains of the community. Rather than simply "tell" students that a certain situation or problem is interesting or important, researchers suggest that the teacher try to arouse their sense of curiosity (Bruner, 2007). Once aroused, it will carry the students through the planned course of study. Learners must get involved with whatever topic or problem they select and must learn its characteristics as well as the general skills of problem solving. In short, we learn by doing. The traditional, logical method of pedagogy presents a systematic, organized body of material. The psychological method links the subject to the learners life situation and then lets him or her work through it in initially chaotic form until a clearer understanding emerges (Dickson and Hargie, 2003). For an adult learner, learning teams are a powerful design option that hopes to meet the challenges of increased knowledge demands, improve output quality, and address the social needs of the ever-changing global workforce. However, the success or failure of work teams will depend largely on communication. Effective communication requires that HR practitioners adapt key assumptions about motivation, structure, and accountability. Adapted assumptions must support lateral thinking, collaboration, interdependence, a focus on process, permeable boundaries, and mutual responsibility. Learning teams are most effective when there is high task interdependence

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Article Example yzed the effects that the U.S economy which is on the verge of and perhaps already in outright recession will have in the general performance of the world economies but particularly to countries with which it trades with heavily such as the economies of Canada, Mexico, Caribbean among others. A U.S recession in 2008 will have a negative effect on real GDP growth of the rest of the world. This will be especially so, in Mexico and Canada. In other countries which would otherwise be threatened by a U.S recession, measures including easing of monetary and fiscal policy would cushion them from the effects, however it is still yet early to undertake any of the macroeconomic measures as a recession in the U.S is still just a prospect. Some countries, such as Australia, china and Sweden have already taken steps to curb any possibility of inflation, they have tightened their monetary policies. However, other countries such as Canada and the United Kingdom have eased their monetary policies in response to their weakening economic growth. Most countries and currencies such as the Euro and the Yen have appreciated against the dollar. Whereas these economies to some extent are being affected by the financial turbulence in United States, with the euro zone economies already showing a slow growth, the appreciation of their currencies against the dollar impedes any chances of inflation. With Japan’s weakening exports to the United States couple with a decrease demand dampens any possibilities of an upsurge in GDP growth. China’s economy continues to grow at an increasing rate, however with a high growth rate comes the problem of inflation, therefore the authorities are being faced with the problem of inflation, and this is necessitating them to tighten their policies both monetary and fiscal. To do this, the best option is to appreciate their currency against the dollar and stimulate domestic demand, however their authorities are not willing to employ this measure. Real

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Poetry Terms ( eye rhyme) - Essay Example However once pronounced, they change and start rhyming hence beginning to make perfect sense. The eye rhyme is normally classified in the group of rhymes defined by nature of similarity. This classification is so because the rhyming words are usually similar in pronunciation and hence very easy to capture them when a poem is being read. This type of rhyming according to poets and other poetry experts is usually highly conventional that is represented in a highly symbolic form yet it is simplified at the same time and in most cases it acts as a reflection of historical changes in the pronunciation for example the words why and envy or even love, move and prove. When said that they reflect historic times, it simply means that this type of rhyme has been there from the early years in the English poems (especially those written during renaissance period) but they have only been recognized as eye rhymes by modern poets. This is true for an eye rhyme like slaughter and laughter. Eye rhymes can also be said to be half rhymes or slant rhymes which have very slight repetition of sounds and pronunciation for example hill and full. The rhyming words are also almost close but not exact and the difference is majorly noted during pronunciation of these words as they have different spellings. Another example of this is glorious and nefarious. The famous American poet Emily Dickinson also is fond of using half rhymes or eye rhymes in her works. This is evident in one of her poems â€Å"Hope is the thing with feathers† where there are the words soul and all (Eliopulos and Todd 48). The eye rhymes according to other poetry works are also known as sight rhymes. This is because they involve words that are similar in pronunciation but different when it comes to spelling for example sight and right. The trick in eye rhymes for those who are not poets or poetry experts is therefore to understand the meaning of the eye rhyme so that

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Commercial Aircraft Industry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Commercial Aircraft Industry - Essay Example This tells just how competitive an industry really is. A market structure defines the condition of a prevailing market and identifies how it is made up in terms of Perfect Competition: Large number of firms, with homogenous products, characterizes this and therefore there is no specific preference by the consumer for the product. The barriers of entry are low and so competitors exit in and out of the market. Since there is myriad options for the customers, prices are set by customer demand. Consumers and suppliers have a complete knowledge of the market. In an ideal scenario, a perfectly competitive market on one extreme balances a monopoly on the other. In reality, no such thing as a true perfectly competitive market exists. Let us now consider the other popular types of market structures, monopoly, oligopoly, and monopolistic competition. Monopolistic Competition: Monopolistic competition is a market structure in which many companies operate independent of each other in an industry. In monopolistic competition, there are too many companies and so the primary aim is to attract customers to one's own product specifications. In monopolistic competition due to the large number of firms, the companies can enter the market relatively easily since the barriers of entry are less, although more compared to perfect competition. This makes profit margins low due to the long-term equilibrium Due to the competitions; firms drop prices in order to expand volumes. Monopolistic competition has a normal downward-sloping demand curve. The competing companies in monopolistic competition are forced to vary the price rather than set a stable price and hold it. In monopolistic competition, there are many firms vying for control of one market. Each firm offers a different type of product or differentiate their product to achieve that edge in marketing of their products. Differentiation is a necessity to attract consumers by a parameter beyond the price. Monopoly: A monopoly is a market structure in which, there is only one company that operates within the industry. This generally does not exist, since substitutes in some form emerge usually. Unregulated monopolies with no government ties can generally do whatever they want. After all, there is no one else to offer a different sort of service or a different price. Monopoly may be characterized by high influence on prices and output. Barriers of entry are high and pricing strategies are employed to stifle competition. Monopolies are achieved by being the first in the field, by mergers and acquisitions or being a patent holder or by nationalisation. Complacency may be an issue due to the lack of competition, rendering it inefficient and consumers may be affected by the high pricing power of the firm. Oligopoly: An oligopoly is a market structure in which there are a small number of interdependent companies in the industry. In oligopolies, there are few companies so if you were a company and you made some sort of decision, it will

Questionaire Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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William Shakespeare and Lady Macbeth Essay Example for Free

William Shakespeare and Lady Macbeth Essay If Renaissance writers sought to accurately portray humanistic ideals and construct true to life portraits using words, then the women of Shakespeares plays embody the apex of this intention. Shakespearean dramas often attribute cunning intellect, calculated control and enigmatic beauty to his female protagonists. In modern reflection, they are revealed as forerunners of contemporary women who aptly proved their ability to rival men in wit and intellect. Rarely powerless or ambivalent, Shakespeares women often drove plots in which they served as the contrivers of the plays central focus. Undoubtedly, the frequently disputed author must have been someone who held education in the highest of esteem; he clearly believed the powers thereof could be used for iniquity or self-betterment. As will be shown, Shakespeare depicts the genius of which women are capable as well of the unspeakable evil in which some of literatures most recognizable females indulged. This dichotomy is perhaps best illustrated in two of Shakespeares most recognizable plays: Macbeth and The Taming of the Shrew. In the former, Lady Macbeth conceives a massacre of the existing royal family in order to elevate her husband to the throne of Scotland. The second play exemplifies the struggle of a spinster to derail the nuptials of both her sister and herself by warding off but eventually submitting to Petruchios courtship. Both women are delineated by the candor and cleverness of their speech and in due course must face the fate they least desired. However, rarely in any Renaissance play does there exist a woman as remarkably intelligent and beautiful as Portia in The Merchant of Venice. A female protagonist, she almost certainly embodies what the author believed the ideal woman should be. Lady Macbeths manipulative instigation of the central murders in MacBeth illustrates the naked ambition which a woman was capable of. As authoritarian and devious as any of Shakespeares characters, Lady Macbeth symbolizes the ability of ethical weakness corrupted by power to lead to corruption by immorality. A descendent of regal blood both historically and in the play, her education is presumed equal with any other woman of such status in the Renaissance. In order to understand the background of aristocratic ladies in the fifteenth century, it is critical to examine the socio-cultural transformation affecting women throughout Europe. As noted by Margaret L. King in Women of the Renaissance, the course of a changing balance of power, brought on by education being made more widely available to women, resulted in men beginning to respect their wives and look to them as a source of guidance, often in secular and domestic matters. It was with reference to this period that Marie de Guarnay wrote The Equity of Men and Women, in which she questioned the values of an uneducated woman and suggested that only women of culture could have a true sense of themselves. Another noted female writer, Christine de Pizan, wrote The City of Ladies, which was translated into English in 1521, around the time Shakespeare wrote his plays. The most significant of Pizans twenty works, the author detailed the significance of her own education and the instruction of other women. Though only limited education was sought out by commoners, Lady Macbeth would have been part of an elite class whom were fortunate enough to have the benefit of private instruction. Lady Macbeths eloquence hints at her implied learnedness. An articulate woman was a rarity among the working classes and was therefore a valued sign of class supremacy among the aristocracy. In Act I, Lady Macbeths monologue in scene five epitomizes both her ruthlessness and rhetoric: LADY MACBETH. The raven himself is hoarse That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan Under my battlements. Come, you spirits That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full Of direst cruelty. Make thick my blood, Stop up thaccess and passage to remorse, That no compunctious visitings of nature Shake my fell purpose, nor keep peace between Th effect and it. Come to my womans breasts, And take my milk for gall, you murdring ministers, Wherever in your sightless substances You wait on natures mischief. (Shakespeare, 123) Lady Macbeth employs extended metaphors and caustic diction as she implores masculine courage and clearly defines her unequivocal ambition to overtake the throne by assassination. The sheer contemptuousness of this articulate soliloquy is evidence of an intellectual force who is in fact the dominant partner in her marriage to the future King Macbeth. In concordance, it may be inferred that Lady Macbeth exploits her regal status and intellectual prowess to bring harm unto others and ultimately facilitate her own demise. Her conscience is shown only as she descends into madness and ultimate suicide: LADY MACBETH. Wash your hands, put on your night-gown, look not so pale. I tell you yet again, Banquos buried; he cannot come out ons grave DOCTOR. Even so? LADY MACBETH. To bed, to bed; theres a knocking at the gate. Come, come, come, come, give me your hand; whats done cannot be undone. To bed, to bed, to bed. (Shakespeare, 219) Lady Macbeth amounts to a character utterly devoid of ethics. Though not entirely representative of Shakespeares opinion of educated women, his treatment of Lady Macbeth surely suggests that a womans intellectual ability, when miss-used, has adverse effects on the individual and those surrounding her. From the inception of The Taming of the Shrew, it is clear that Katherina indeed lives up to her reputation as Katherine the Curst (Shakespeare, 95). Baptistas eldest daughter behaves aggressively to the friendliest of acquaintances but she is also psychologically astute and capable of tremendous wit and candor. Though Katherinas feisty demeanor may be at first deceptive, by adding innuendos and complex metaphors to her discourse, Shakespeare alludes to a capable, clever woman beneath her pugnacious nature. Additionally, the author sets forth a counter-plot between Bianca and Lucentio who epitomize what a conventional young couple should be; his handsome looks and charismatic manner pair well with Biancas youthful beauty. Their relationship contrasts strongly with the tempestuous encounters between Petruchio and Katherina. However, Bianca is portrayed throughout as submissive and her role is never one of particular interest; it seems therefore that Shakespeare favors Katherina if only because her persona is the more fascinating to encounter. Bianca, though likely educated and reared similarly to Kate, lacks the gumption and resolve which makes her sister more demanding of her suitors and active in the play. Shakespeares favoritism is further evidenced in the plays title; Katherina is clearly the shrew and therefore the protagonist. In sum, the author has favored a willful woman over her submissive counterpart, validating a womans attempt to control her choice of partner rather than proper obedience. As for the authors inspiration, scholars have suggested that Katherina may have been modeled after his sister, Katherine de Vere of Windsor. If de Veres sister was the inspiration for his shrew, it is evident that he did not remember her fondly! When Edward de Vere was in his adolescence, Katherine attempted to obtain his inheritance and earldom by suing him. If Edward de Vere was in fact the author of the Shakespeare plays (Looney 1920, et alia), it seems his personal partialities may have influenced many of his female protagonists. Katherina is further characterized by the literary elements in her speech; her wit and rapid responses are among the sure signs that she is as clever as the men who surround her and a perfect adversary for Petruchio. Her infrequent victories over male counterparts are nearly always marked by two facets: Katherinas refusal to relinquish her stance and her keen ability to out-quarrel her opponent. In this passage, Katherina attempts to defy the wishes of Petruchio: KATHERINA So may you lose your arms. If you strike me, you are no gentlemen, why then no arms. PETRUCHIO A herald, Kate? O put me in thy books. KATHERINA What is your crest- a coxcomb? PETRUCHIO A combless cock, so Kate will be my hen. KATHERINA No cock of mine; you crow too like a craven. PETRUCHIO Nay, come Kate, come; you must not look so sour. KATHERINA It is my fashion when I see a crab. (Shakespeare, 97) Notably, Kates contemptuous remarks and quick-witted responses come as a great surprise to Petruchio, who seems to enjoy their combative exchange. Katherina dispels the notion that ladies must be demure and submissive if they wish to attract the company of a suitor. Perhaps the most telling moment in the play is Katherinas final monologue; it seems this speech has been the subject of more controversy than nearly all others in literature. It has been subjected to scholarly scrutiny, denounced by feminists and continued to awe readers for centuries because it is the most indicative moment of Shakespeares view of femininity. From the feminist movement of the twentieth century, there comes the revisionist theory that Kate has not been tamed at all and her character is a mockery of mens treatment of women. Evidence to support this includes Christopher Slys comments about the play, in which he states that Petruchios actions have taught him how to treat a woman. Since we are aware of Christopher Slys foolishness, it is unlikely that the author aimed for readers to identify with this view. It seems possible that Shakespeare intended to reveal the lingering misogyny of an era in which willful, intelligent women were often dismissed as stepping outside their natural roles. Though it seems avant-garde in the context of the period, this theory suggests that womens submissiveness has been mocked and the play is ultimately successfully feminist. If the final monologue is intended to deceive Petruchio and is a calculated attempt to win back his favor, then Katherinas character is truly revolutionary because she has beguiled the two men who know her best- Petruchio and Baptista- into believing that she yields to their desires. But this interpretation of Petruchio and Katherina demonstrates to why it is believed The Earl of Oxford respected Elizabeth Trentham: she was an intellectually gifted woman who was capable of actively participating in affairs traditionally allocated to men. The alternate theory and more accepted of the two, is that Kate is a broken woman and male supremacy has been achieved. Aside from Kates final monologue, there is evidence throughout the play in favor of a misogynistic interpretation. In particular, Act IV, in which Petruchio and Kate return home from their wedding, is atrocious yet exemplary of brutal tactics used to keep women from taking charge of the household. Throughout the scene, Petruchio makes subtle suggestions that Kate has been transformed by their wedding from her fathers property to his. Furthermore, as Petruchio becomes enraged by the servants, he directly prevents Katherine from relieving her fundamental need of food and sleep. In response to her taming, Kate attributes the following accolades to her husband at the end of Act V: Thy husband is thy lord, thy life, thy keeper, Thy head, thy sovereign; one that cares for thee And for thy maintenance; commits his body To painful labor both by sea and land, To watch the night in storms, the day in cold, Whilst thou list warm at home, secure and safe; And craves no other tribute at thy hands  But love, fair looks, and true obedience Too little payment for so great a debt. (Shakespeare, 160) Interpreted by the second view, this speech may be considered an elegy for the vivacious, feisty Katherina that has been replaced by the subservient Kate. She has eschewed every facet of her personality which had been valued so greatly to this point in the play. In a sense, Katherina is representative of the cycle which many aristocratic women faced in the Renaissance: they were educated to be proficient members of society only to be silenced at the hand of a husband they often did not desire. If the speech is not a tongue-in-cheek betrayal, then Katherina has truly been broken by Petruchios incessant cruelty and she represents a victim of the repressive treatment many fifteenth century women endured. Perhaps no examination of Shakespeares treatment of educated women could be complete without deciphering Portias enigmatic mix of beauty and intellect. She is seemingly a series of contradictions: a free sprit abiding by strict rules, feminine but strong and happy to be rid of many of her suitors yet saddened by her inability to control her marital prospects. Portia is a woman of remarkable wealth and patrician social status yet her values are those of every woman. She is clearly the plays protagonist; her humility and capacity to make the situations work in her favor counter Shylocks malignant conduct. The epitome of Portias contribution to the plot can be found in Shakespeares oft discussed court scene. Disguised as Balthasar, she effectively imitates as a man who has been educated through law school. This is the strongest suggestion that Shakespeare intended Portia to be not only learned but also wise; her trial scenes reveal a keen sense of  manipulation which allows Portia to address both parties without apparent bias, though to the reader she hardly seems impartial. In her famous speech, Portia equates the virtue of mercy with the divine and beseeches Shylocks compassion for Antonio: PORTIA. The quality of mercy is not strained; It droppeth as the gentle rain falls from heaven Upon the place beneath. It is twice blest; It blesseth him that gave and him that takes. Tis mightiest in the mightiest; it becomes The throned monarch better than his crown. His scepter shows the force of temporal power,  Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings; But mercy is above this sceptered sway. (Merchant, 78) Portia is indeed a woman of great articulacy who adapts fluidly to her role as a mediating lawyer. She has used her grace and candor to make a stellar case for Antonios life; this could not have been accomplished without her previous schooling. Balthasar turns the case around entirely: by trials end, Shylock is begging for mercy from Antonio. Portia has indeed floored the courtroom with her arguments and saved the life of her husbands comrade. The protagonist has effectively used her wits and ingenuity to deliver justice into the hands of an innocent man and antagonized Shylocks gluttonous ploy. In the context of womens education, Portia exemplifies that with knowledge, women may be as effective as men. Because she is posing in a traditionally male position, it is significant that Portia prevails in the case and delegates a fair result even for the disagreeable Shylock. Though she is clearly capable of being as effective as any male lawyer, Portia is forbidden to do so unless she poses as a man. Shakespeare is thus providing a strong critique of the limitations of gender roles and satirizing male superiority, a concept quite radical for his time. In a historical context, we are aware of some parallels between these characteristics and the second wife of the Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxfords second wife, Elizabeth Trentham. Though little is known about her background or life with de Vere, from his will and letters certain principles are clear. Elizabeth Trentham did participate in managing of the Earls finances and her letters suggest that she was eloquent and probably of distinguished academic background for a woman of her time. Since it has been said that de Veres married her for love rather than social gain, we may infer that his true preference leaned toward women of capable intellect and practical abilities. Portia certainly exhibits these traits; her ability to speak in court and prevailing love for Bessanio suggest that she is a woman of resolve and strength. The court scenes in The Merchant of Venice are so potent that they have been the subject of noteworthy scholarly debate. In particular, Portias capable trial speeches bear similarities in tone to the pleas Mary Queen of Scots made for her own life in 1587. Significantly, Edward de Vere was a judge at this trial and though clearly his sympathies lay with Elizabeth I, de Vere may have been struck by Marys unaided defense which was palpably an attempt to appeal to the sympathies of her judges. She is said to have broken down in court and unabashedly pleaded with the judges for her life. Though her life was not spared, it has been said that she was effective in arousing pity in the court: Mary defended herself with consummate ability before a tribunal almost entirely prejudiced against her. She was deprived of legal aid, without her papers and in ill health†¦she reached a point of touching eloquence which might have moved the hearts, though it did not convince the intellects, of her august judges. (Looney, 303) Perhaps, the very notion of a woman mounting her own defense at a trial was an idea which struck the Earl of Oxford as worthy of further expansion and like Mary Queen of Scots; he constructed the character of Portia to underscore the significance of mercy as a divine attribute bringing both the giver and receiver closer to God. The women of Shakespeares plays were harbingers of the present; they represented triumph of ability and intellect over rigid gender roles. In Shakespeares time, intelligent women were often viewed as a threat to male superiority; however, it seems their attributes often made them capable of dominating their relationships with men and their cogency proved equal. This idea is further established by the notion that Portia and Katherina may have been based on women from the authors life. Though studying the works of Shakespeare, it becomes clear that women.

Evaluate the approach of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

Evaluate the approach of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy In this essay I will discuss the Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, then I will critically evaluate the approach, with strengths and limitations, give an example of an episode that , I tried to use this approach, give the reasons in which situations I would use it. And finally what I had learned from this research and how it impacted me for future practice. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, have roots in behaviourism, as well as Cognitive therapy. In our days many cognitive behavioural therapist follow the principles from both these schools. In the beginnings of 1970s, Professor Aaron T. Beck developed a theory of depression, which promotes the importance of peoples depressed style of thinking. Becks work has changed the nature of psychotherapy , not just for depression , but for a range of psychological problems such as , phobias, anxiety, depression, anger, sexual and relationships problems, drugs and alcohol abuse, obsessive compulsive disorder, I just mention a few of them. For a successful treatment is necessary that the patient work together with therapist, and is willing to change, is vital that patient is able to recognise his abnormal thinking or behaviour. CBT is a short -term therapy normally between 10 to 15 sessions and lasts for an hour. With the help of the therapist the patient will tackle these abnormal thinking or behavio ur, by learning a different range of techniques to combat them. Abnormal behaviour is caused by maladaptive thoughts that a person can internalise in its self, this maladaptive behaviour does not allow the patient to have a normal life. As above referred CBT is mixed with cognitive and behavioural therapy They are combined because how we behave often reflects how we think about certain things or situations. The emphasis on cognitive or behavioural aspects of therapy can vary, depending on the condition being treated. For example, there is often more emphasis on behavioural therapy when treating an eating disorder because repetitive actions are a main problem. On the other hand, the emphasis may be more on cognitive therapy when treating depression. In this type of therapy the patient have to talk about his feelings, the way they see the world, and also other people. The two main techniques of CBT in a session is to the patient discuss with , the therapist about his evidence for and against negative beliefs, the second one the therapist will ask to the patient for him to test his beliefs , and change the way that he reacts to them and see what happens. The therapist helps the patient to understand his actual thought and patterns. In particular, to identify any harmful, unhelpful, and f alse ideas or thoughts which he may have, that triggers his health problem, or makes it worse. The aim is then to change his ways of thinking to avoid these ideas. Also, to help his thought patterns to be more realistic and helpful. The treatment with the patient is based in talking , both therapist and patient will work together to identify and understand the reason , for the patient abnormal behaviour , or thought . CBT does not rely on the past, but in the present here and now, therapist and patient will look at patient problem in different perspective more healthy and positive. The therapist will set goals and assignments. Strategies which are monitored and evaluated, in-between the sessions. With the techniques and the homework that the therapist had planned for him , in a situation of abnormal behaviour , or thought the patient , will recognise what trigged the situation, and how he have to behave to overcome that situation. It is important that the patient recognise what trigged the situation, and put in practice the techniques set by the therapist that will help him to change that. This therapy will make the patient more aware. The patient is also asked to maintain a diary to write down the way he thinks , feels and behaves in daily situations, emotions, automatic thoughts, logical response and outcome is also another helpful technique. It will be then more easily to break the maladaptive pattern. However as any approach in the human behaviour it has strengths, and limitations. CBT is not suitable for everyone, only helps certain conditions, it had been shown good results in treating anxiety and depression Eysenck, P.286, 1997 but is especially effective with panic disorder. Rachman (1993, p.279), As far as anxiety disorders are concerned, the greatest theoretical and clinical progress has been made in applying cognitive-behaviour therapy (CBT) to thetreatment of panicky. People who take medicines are a greater risk to relapse , when they stop taking them , I agree because they didnt learn to identify what triggers their maladaptive behaviour , and didnt challenge them in trying new behaviours, it is like they are frozen by the medicines, and when they stop taking them , they defrost and everything will start again . CBT is claimed to treat schizophrenia that is a very serious disorder, and that is extremely difficult to treat, and medicines are necessary for the patient, in my opinion this disorder cannot be treated by CBT. In other side CBT is extremely structured and does not focus in the past, but in here and now. However studies had shown that patients after 2 years of therapy has finished, do better than those using other type of treatments, however every individual is unique, two patients with same disorder may have different results because the degree of the extension of the disorder may differ. CBT does not take in account genetic factors, also does not take in consideration interpersonal factors like his social role, life experiences that can produce mental disorders. Another aspect is that is not clear if the abnormal thoughts can be the cause of the disorder. Secondly is unfair to blame the patient for their mental disorder, because it may be other people the responsible an example is the case of bullying is not the victim fault. Also the patient must be willing to change; he may find boring the homework, and the diary sheet. Also disrespects the patient intelligence by making the therapist, rather that the patient unconscious wisdom, the source of clear intelligence about the problem. Also the therapist encouragement to tackle this abnormal behaviour is vital interpersonal skills like warmth, acceptance and empathy will make the CBT more successful. Overall this approach is positive but is effectiveness will depend in factors, such , type of disorder , willing to change by the patient, support of the therapist, commitment to do the homework, and attend the sessions. If in my practice Im working with a service user that have a problem in low self esteem, problems in relationship, I would use this approach to set goals for the user confront his fears, in other situations like eating disorders, depression, panic attacks, the help of a qualified therapist is essential, because he will know better than me how the user is progressing, his evaluation also will more accurate, because I dont hold a degree or a masters in that area. I have a couple of friends, who had marital problems such as verbal abuse towards each other, both of them asked to talk with each other, accusing one another for the failure of the relationship. I spoke with both of them together, and asked about their negatives attitudes, and asked them why they couldnt do things in another way, that wouldnt hurt the partner. But they were both resilient to change, and admit their mistakes , in this situation I thought they needed the help of a professional, I didnt had the skills and techniques that a therapist would have, and maybe because I was a friend, they may had felt uncomfortable talking with me, in this case the commitment of the couple to recognise their abnormal attitudes was imperative, to try ad change them, my friend was stressed, anxious and depressed because of the marital problems, and she was pregnant at the time. I advice her to book an appointment with her GP expose the situation, and try counselling and because she was pregnan t, this would affect the unborn child. I now understand that in practice , I can approach a service problem with different theories , that can help me to decode and assess the user situation in a constructively perspective, if a I just rely in one single approach, I will miss other underlying problems, in the case above there was other theories that could explain certain behaviours and attitudes. Coulshed (1991.p.8) Theoryless practice does not exist ; we cannot avoid looking for explanations to guide our actions , whilst research has shown that those agencies which profess not use theory offer a non problem solving wooly and directionless service. CBT and social work. both have the aim to empower the user to control his life, in my view in certain situations, I would use this approach of course that, I need more training and skills to work effectively. Having researched this approach I learned that in certain situations with users we can use techniques and skills from different approaches, and analyse the service user situation with different approaches. I believe that will bring a deeper insight into the service user assessment of needs and resources to help him to be in control of his life again.

The Ethics of Genetic Testing Essay -- Science Religion Papers

The Ethics of Genetic Testing The Goal of the Human Genome Project is to obtain genetic mapping information and to determine the complete sequence of all human DNA by the year of 2005. The project started in 1990 and 180 million dollars are being spent on it annually. This adds up to a total of over 2 billion dollars for the 15 year budget. Of this 2 billion dollars budgeted, 5% is spent annually on the ethical, legal and social issues. This report focused on some of these issues. Before discussion of the ethical, legal and social issues can be successful, some background information is needed. For example, why is the goal of mapping the human genome important? Who is going to benefit or at least be affected by this new information? Dr. Francis Collins, the current director of the Human Genome Project believes there are many benefits. Not surprisingly, Collins believes the money being spent on this project is well worth it. Collins believes the project has great potential to relieve suffering and also cut back on long term expenses (Collins, 1996). These suffering and spending reductions are predicted to occur as more genetic diseases are located. Genetic disorders can be divided into 2 broad groups: 1. Genetic predisposition disorders: those in which the presence of a gene confers an increased tendency to develop a certain disorder. The disorder may or may not develop depending on a variety of associated personal and environmental factors such as geographic location, diet, exposure to harmful chemicals or toxins, exercise habits etc... 2. Environment independent disorders: Involve a determining force so overwhelming that the disorder is expressed in a predictable manner without environmental interaction ... ...York, 1991. Magnus, David. Gene Therapy and the concept of Disease, Marshal, Eliot. (May 24 1996). Rifkin's Latest Target: Genetic Testing. Science. Meilaender, Gilbert. (1990, October 3). Mastering our gen(i)es: When do we say no? The Christian Century, pp 872-875. Murphey, Timothy F. Justice and the Human Genome Project. University of California Press, Los Angeles, 1994. Reich, W.T. Encyclopedia of Bioethics, 2nd ed. New York: Free Press MacMillan, 1995. Vaux, Kenneth, L. Birth Ethics. The Crossroad Publishing Co, New York. 1989. Wilkie, Tom. Periilous Knowledge: The Human Genome Project and its implications. University of CA Press, Los Angeles, 1993. Wolf, Susan M. Feminism and Bioethics: Beyond Reproduction. Oxford University Press, New York, 1996. Wright, Richard T. Biology Through the Eyes of Faith. Christian College Coalition, 1989. The Ethics of Genetic Testing Essay -- Science Religion Papers The Ethics of Genetic Testing The Goal of the Human Genome Project is to obtain genetic mapping information and to determine the complete sequence of all human DNA by the year of 2005. The project started in 1990 and 180 million dollars are being spent on it annually. This adds up to a total of over 2 billion dollars for the 15 year budget. Of this 2 billion dollars budgeted, 5% is spent annually on the ethical, legal and social issues. This report focused on some of these issues. Before discussion of the ethical, legal and social issues can be successful, some background information is needed. For example, why is the goal of mapping the human genome important? Who is going to benefit or at least be affected by this new information? Dr. Francis Collins, the current director of the Human Genome Project believes there are many benefits. Not surprisingly, Collins believes the money being spent on this project is well worth it. Collins believes the project has great potential to relieve suffering and also cut back on long term expenses (Collins, 1996). These suffering and spending reductions are predicted to occur as more genetic diseases are located. Genetic disorders can be divided into 2 broad groups: 1. Genetic predisposition disorders: those in which the presence of a gene confers an increased tendency to develop a certain disorder. The disorder may or may not develop depending on a variety of associated personal and environmental factors such as geographic location, diet, exposure to harmful chemicals or toxins, exercise habits etc... 2. Environment independent disorders: Involve a determining force so overwhelming that the disorder is expressed in a predictable manner without environmental interaction ... ...York, 1991. Magnus, David. Gene Therapy and the concept of Disease, Marshal, Eliot. (May 24 1996). Rifkin's Latest Target: Genetic Testing. Science. Meilaender, Gilbert. (1990, October 3). Mastering our gen(i)es: When do we say no? The Christian Century, pp 872-875. Murphey, Timothy F. Justice and the Human Genome Project. University of California Press, Los Angeles, 1994. Reich, W.T. Encyclopedia of Bioethics, 2nd ed. New York: Free Press MacMillan, 1995. Vaux, Kenneth, L. Birth Ethics. The Crossroad Publishing Co, New York. 1989. Wilkie, Tom. Periilous Knowledge: The Human Genome Project and its implications. University of CA Press, Los Angeles, 1993. Wolf, Susan M. Feminism and Bioethics: Beyond Reproduction. Oxford University Press, New York, 1996. Wright, Richard T. Biology Through the Eyes of Faith. Christian College Coalition, 1989.